Third Generation Gangs Subject Bibliography No. 2: Haitian Gangs
The Haitian gang crisis, which has persisted since 2018 and shows no signs of resolution, continues to grow worse. What began as a series of localized issues has now escalated into a full-blown humanitarian and political crisis marked by widespread gang violence, deepening oppression, and systemic corruption that affects all levels of society. One of the most concerning developments has been the rise of powerful criminal gangs in Haiti, which have evolved into what are known as Third Generation (3GEN) Gangs. Such gangs develop beyond basic turf and market (typically narcotics) focuses and gain in sophistication wherein they engage in mercenary activities, garner power, and, at the more extreme levels, attempt to further their political and social objectives which directly challenge state sovereignty. These groups now exert control over approximately 90% of the capital, Port-au-Prince, with almost no effective resistance from local law enforcement, the national government, or international authorities. This lack of control has led to a breakdown of security, with the gangs establishing a firm grip on the country’s key urban areas and engaging in ruthless violence (including committing atrocities), extortion, and further destabilizing an already fragile nation. To add to these levels of violence, small arms are actively flowing into the country from the United States and neighborhood vigilante groups have been actively forming to counter the wave of street terror being unleased by the gangs.
The dominant Haitian gangs that presently operate in the country include the larger G9/Delmas 6 and G-Pèp confederations and big gangs such as the 400 Mawozo and Nan Brooklyn. These gangs have developed their own unique culture, with the Haitian Creole language dominating, derived partially from Haiti’s historical experience along with the poverty and street criminality that exist within. Local religious traditions—heavily influenced by Afro-Caribbean spirituality tied to West African religious practices and local Vodou rituals—further influence their activities. This has led to some gang leaders taking on Vodou personas (such as the ‘Spirit of the Dead’) and being adorned with its symbolism, even engaging in sporadic instances of instrumental cannibalism and spiritual killings (where the organs such as the eyes and heart are removed). While much of the international security literature has been focused on other regions of the world, the Caribbean has traditionally been underrepresented in these discussions. This bibliography aims to fill part of that gap by presenting a collection of diverse materials that offer multiple perspectives on the ongoing 3GEN Gangs crisis in Haiti. Included are research notes, journal articles, reports, books, documentaries, and news articles that cover the events unfolding in Haiti from a variety of perspectives.
Maxime Aurélien and Ted Rutland, Out To Defend Ourselves: A History of Montreal’s First Haitian Street Gang. Halifax: Fernwood Publishing, 2023, pp. 1–192, https://fernwoodpublishing.ca/book/out-to-defend-ourselves:
Abstract: The book discusses the establishment of the first Haitian gang (les Bélangers) and its activities in Montreal in the 1980s. The gang was said to be established due to the perceived need to create a community self-defense force within the context of economic disenfranchisement, racism, and violence. It is written by one of the gang’s founders and a collaborating university professor giving it more of a pro-gang—“let us tell our story”—narrative.
Robert J. Bunker, “Recent Instances of Haitian Gang Cannibalism: Street Reality, Fake News, Gang PSYOPS, and/or Dark Spirituality?” C/O Futures Gang Research Note Series. 18 March 2024, pp. 1–16 https://www.cofutures.net/post/recent-instances-of-haitian-gang-cannibalism-street-reality-fake-news-gang-psyops-and-or-dark-sp:
Abstract: The research note explores and analyzes allegations of mass cannibalism taking place in the streets of Port-au-Prince, Haiti. It looks at this issue of concern from various perspectives tied to Third Generation Gang activity in the country and how the narrative has been decried as fake news. However, instances of instrumental cannibalism and the removal of body parts tied to the spiritual beliefs of some gang members has indeed taken place.
CBS Reports, “Fighting for Haiti.” YouTube. 22:07 minute video. 6 July 2023, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9VajKGPDa9c:
Abstract: The news documentary chronicles the instability in Haiti stemming from the July 2021 assassination of Haitian President Jovenel Moise. This left an institutional power vacuum which was exploited by local Haitian gangs—in league with both foreign and domestic political interests—which has plunged the country into further crisis, with homicide rates soaring and vigilante groups forming. Note: The video includes some graphic images of violence.
DW Documentary, “Haiti – The Iron Grip of the Gangs.” YouTube. 42:25 minute video, 21 February 2025, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gTmPE-qev3g:
Abstract: This documentary explores the impact of gang control on the lives of Haitian citizens in Port-au-Prince. Through interviews with gang members, government officials, anti-gang forces, and victims of violence and displacement, it examines how the ongoing crisis has reshaped the community. The film offers firsthand accounts of citizens enduring gun violence and other forms of brutality.
James Elder, “‘Robbed’ of Their Childhood: UNICEF Warns of Crisis Facing Haiti’s Youth.” UN News. 1:18 minute video. 31 January 2025, https://news.un.org/en/story/2025/01/1159671:
Abstract: This news report from the United Nations reveals details about the children at risk stemming from the 2024 Haitian internal crisis. It includes updates and statistics on percentages of child recruitment into gangs, humanitarian needs, and UN appeals. Natural disasters and Haitian refugees repatriated to the country have only exacerbated the ongoing crisis.
Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime. Gangs of Haiti: Expansion, Power, and an Escalating Crisis. October 2022, pp. 1–24, https://globalinitiative.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/GITOC-Gangs-of-Haiti.pdf.
Abstract: This report documents the rise of the Haitian crisis, focusing on the history of Haiti as it relates to the current criminal insurgency. Major sections of this report include the examination of the relationship between Haitian politics and gangs, how the gangs morphed into more powerful forces, and the mapping and categorization of major gangs and alliances.
“Last Chance? Breaking Haiti’s Political and Criminal Impasse.” Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime. January 2025, pp. 1–25, https://globalinitiative.net/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Last-chance-Breaking-Haitis-political-and-criminal-impasse-GI-TOC-January-2025.pdf:
Abstract: This report examines the events and occurrences of the Haitian crisis during 2024. The sections of this report focus on the major criminal insurgents plaguing Haiti, the political perspective of both the insurgents and the governmental bodies (local to international), and the hardships that the counter-insurgency effort faces. The report ends with recommendations for policies to assist counter-insurgency efforts.
International Crisis Group, “Locked in Transition: Politics and Violence in Haiti.” Latin America & Caribbean Report N°107. 19 February 2025, pp. 1–43, https://www.crisisgroup.org/sites/default/files/2025-02/107-violence-haiti%20-%20Print.pdf:
Abstract: This report tracks Haiti from the introduction of a transitional government in April 2024 to February 2025 and how infighting has weakened the government based on 232 interviews from public administration, private sector, diplomacy, security, civil society, and communities in Port-au-Prince, New York, Nairobi, and other capitals. It also assesses the likelihood of the government succeeding in their goals. Recommendations for the authorities to a path for safe elections and the reshaping of the government are delved into in detail.
Jake Johnston, Aid State: Elite Panic, Disaster Capitalism, and the Battle to Control Haiti. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2024, pp. 1–384, https://www.amazon.com/Aid-State-Disaster-Capitalism-Control/dp/1250284678:
Abstract: The work provides a critical take on US and European ‘disaster (predatory) capitalism’ which seeks to extract as much wealth from a country as it can while paying lip service (via foreign aid) to the human suffering taking place. Given this foreign political and economic hold on the nation, it is of little wonder that poverty, corruption, and violence continue and street gangs have now proliferated to the point where state failure has resulted.
Max Kail, Zombie Files: Gangs, Drugs, Politics and Voodoo under the Mandate of the United Nations. Independent: 2019, pp. 1–130, https://us.amazon.com/Zombie-Files-Politics-Mandate-Nations/dp/B0BFV21N92:
Abstract: A scathing and controversial book, written by a former UN police officer deployed to Haiti, which characterizes the Haitian leadership—linked to Jean-Bertrand Aristide—as being actively engaged in narcotics trafficking to the US (via the Florida marijuana and cocaine route). Additionally, Aristide initially formed and armed gangs of street youths in the 1990s to support his regime by means of territorial control to secure votes. As these gangs evolved and different Haitian leaders rose and fell, the gangs were able to eventually throw off governmental control, become fully independent, and seize localized power.
Chelsey L. Kivland, Street Sovereigns: Young Men and the Makeshift State in Urban Haiti. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2020, pp. 1–306, https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9781501746994/street-sovereigns/:
Abstract: This ethnography focusing on male Haitian youth represents an academic interpretation of their perceptions. It attempts to take the reader onto the streets of a country besieged by violence, poverty, and lack of opportunities (and consequently hope) where powerful gangs have become a fact of everyday life. It focuses on the ‘baz’ construct which exists at the neighborhood level and merges one’s identity derived from the interface of ‘insecurity and activism.’ This anthropological-constructivist work is not an easy read but has value in that it delves into the local cultural thought process and gang member perceptions.
Nick Kramer, “Lessons from American Counterinsurgency Operations During the Occupation of Haiti.” Small Wars Journal, 16 June 2021, pp. 1–7, https://archive.smallwarsjournal.com/index.php/jrnl/art/lessons-american-counterinsurgency-operations-during-occupation-haiti:
Abstract: This article examines the history of United States-occupied Haiti from 1915 to 1934 for the purpose of revealing insights for counter-insurgency operations. While some of the lessons learned may still be applicable, they must be actively challenged to determine their current utility against the Third Generation Gang derived criminal insurgencies actively taking place in Haiti. As examples, the minimum use of force (more policing and less military response), creating and managing an effective civil government, and winning the support of the populace represent timeless counter-insurgency principals.
Romain Le Cour Grandmaison, Ana Paula Oliveira, and Matt Herbert, “A Critical Moment: Haiti’s Gang Crisis and International Responses.” Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime. February 2024, pp. 1–50, https://globalinitiative.net/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/Romain-Le-Cour-Grandmaison-Ana-Paula-Oliveira-and-Matt-Herbert-A-critical-moment-Haitis-gang-crisis-and-international-responses-GI-TOC-February-2024.pdf:
Abstract: This document summarizes the Haitian criminal insurgency crisis during 2023. Major sections of this document are on the rise of Haitian gangs and their shift from control of territory to governance, the international response to the crisis, and recommendations for further aid to counter-insurgency operations. The response initially focuses on engaging in “preliminary meetings intended to establish a shared understanding of mandates, operational approaches and current objectives for each side” between the various parties of interest, the Multinational Security Support Mission in Haiti (MSS), and UN panel members.
Romain Le-Cour-Grandmaison, “Haiti, Caught between Political Paralysis and Escalating Violence.” Global Initiative. 25 November 2024, pp. 1–11, https://globalinitiative.net/analysis/haiti-caught-between-political-paralysis-and-escalating-violence/:
Abstract: This article examines the incidents and occurrences of the Haitian crisis from mid-to-late 2024 with violence levels increasing after a gang truce ended in October. It documents the activities of the criminal insurgents, political conflicts of the Transitional Presidential Council, and the response of the state as failing to support the counter-insurgency effort. Increased numbers of displaced people, concerns related to a blurring between police and vigilante group activities, and the gangs ‘weaponized violence’ directed against the system (state) are also highlighted.
Robert Muggah and Rajeev Gundur. “Perspective: The Caribbean’s Metastasizing Gang Threat Needs Coordinated Regional Responses.” Small Wars Journal. 15 April 2024, pp. 1–11, https://archive.smallwarsjournal.com/index.php/jrnl/art/perspective-caribbeans-metastasizing-gang-threat-needs-coordinated-regional-responses:
Abstract: This journal article examines the Haitian crisis and the growing threat of criminal insurgents and how the threat has changed in early 2024. The perspective explains drivers of the criminal insurgency and recommendations for counter-insurgency operations to succeed at the regional level of coordination with the US as a dominant partner in this regard.
Ian Murray and Chris Bernotavicius, “Stabilizing Haiti: A Guide for Policymakers.” Texas National Security Review. Vol. 7, no. 2, Spring 2024, pp. 98–113, https://doi.org/10.26153/tsw/52236:
Abstract: This journal article—geared toward providing guidance to policy makers—focuses on efforts to stabilize Haiti. Major sections of this article are on the development of Haitian gangs, the history of previous security operations, and how lessons learned can assist in stabilization efforts. The latter have shown that a focus beyond the structural economic conditions of the nation is required and should extend into also addressing pre-existing institutional and political problems. The misuse of international donations to support ineffective policies has also been shown to become a part of the ongoing problem rather than a solution to it.
Neptune Prince, Ed., Comprendre les gangs en Haïti: quartiers – sécurité – médias. Pro Éditions, 2023, pp. 1–320, https://www.amazon.com/Comprendre-Gangs-Haïti-Quartiers-Sécurité/dp/289454605X:
Abstract: This work in French is divided into an introduction, seven chapters, and a conclusion. It approaches the gang crisis in Haiti from a sociology and urban planning rather than a criminal justice perspective and draws upon a postcolonial societal approach. It focuses on living in an urban environment and the rights of individual Haitians plagued by gangs and the insecurities these criminal operations have upon them. The work is the product of a specialized conference involving Haitian academics which took place in in September 2022 focusing upon neighborhood, security, and the media.
Timothy T. Schwartz, Travesty in Haiti: A True Account of Christian Missions, Orphanages, Fraud, Food Aid and Drug Trafficking. BookSurge Publishing, 2008, pp. 1–332, https://www.amazon.com/Travesty-Haiti-Christian-orphanages-trafficking/dp/1419698036:
Abstract: This book recounts the first-hand experiences of the author, Timothy Schwartz, an anthropologist after his return to Haiti in 1995. It centers around how efforts made, via foreign aid agencies, to help Haiti failed, ultimately leaving the state in a worse position. This book is a great introduction to the history of the Haitian crisis and Haitian culture. The work also delves into the author’s experiences with “vodou” and the hold it has on the Haitian population. The contextual issues of corruption and drug trafficking are also discussed as these issues will also impact the increasing development of gangs in the country.
Sarah Shamim, “Haiti’s ‘Vodou’ Murders: Why Did a Gang Kill Nearly 200 People?” Al Jazeera. 11 December 2024, pp. 1–11, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/12/11/haitis-vodou-murders-why-did-a-gang-kill-nearly-200-people:
Abstract: This news article reports how nearly 200 people were killed in Haiti from early-to-mid December 2024. The killings in the slum of Cite Soleil in Port-au-Prince were said to be in retaliation for witchcraft being directed at a local gang leader’s child who died. The order from the gang leader, known by the moniker “King Micanor,” resulted in the killing of many elderly individuals whose bodies were then burned and thrown into the sea. The article shows how dark spirituality and occultism (“Vodou” in this case) can be an additional variable in criminal insurgency violence.
John P. Sullivan and Robert J. Bunker, “Third Generation Gangs Strategic Note No. 41: Criminal Insurgency and ‘Revolution’ in Haiti?” Small Wars Journal, 2 July 2021, pp. 1–9, https://archive.smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/third-generation-gangs-strategic-note-no-41-criminal-insurgency-and-revolution-haiti:
Abstract: This journal article analyzes news sources from mid-2021 to explore how Haitian 3GEN Gangs fit into the criminal insurgency narrative of Haiti and how they have evolved. It focuses on Jimmy Chérizier, known as “Barbecue,” the head of G9 Fanmi ak Alye (G9 Family and Allies) and his calls for ‘revolution’ in Haiti against the central government. This gang uprising represents a component of Third Generation Gang power seeking behaviors and is representative of the dangers they pose to weak political capacity and fragile states.
Haiti’s Criminal Markets: Mapping Trends in Firearms and Drug Trafficking. Vienna: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, March 2023, pp. 1–47, https://reliefweb.int/report/haiti/haitis-criminal-markets-mapping-trends-firearms-and-drug-trafficking:
Abstract: This report focuses on the trends of firearm and drug trafficking in Haiti from the onset of the Haitian crisis starting in 2017 through 2022. It also focuses on the infrastructure used for trafficking and the responses to these activities. Key findings from the study include that “Increasingly sophisticated and high-calibre firearms and ammunition are being trafficked into Haiti amid an unprecedented and rapidly deteriorating security situation” and that “Heavily armed criminal gangs are targeting ports, highways, critical infrastructure, customs offices, police stations, court houses, prisons, businesses and neighbourhoods.”
